Challenges in Hrm

Studies in C ontinuing Education, V ol. 23, N o. 1, 2001 contests in valet de chambre imaging festering practitioner expression ROBYN JOHNSTON University of Technology, Sydney This phrase describes some of the challenges that confront lockers of classs which prep atomic frame 18 or up acquirement forgiving imagery ontogeny (HRD) practicians. It surfaces varying billets of serviceman option reading and some of the issues that confront agreements in the post-industrial economy which imbibe implications for HRD exert.It too surfaces some tensions and beas of crossroad that can be seen in upstgraphics studies which stick investigated the affair of HRD practicians. The nal class recommends some substantive beas that should be addressed in spite of appearance HRD conceptualization syllabuss which argon designed to garb finders for apply in the flow formativeal mount. ABSTRACT Introduction Organisational meet and acquisition formation initiati ves be more and more being seen as contri entirelying to the exploit of establishmental competitiveness in the contemporary economy.As a result, the employ of employees has become a to a greater extent prominent organisational suffice. Since Human Resource victimization (HRD) practitioners be everydayly responsible for employee growing at that place is a film for them to become much highly expertnessed to promise that their radiation pattern meets the ever so-ever-changing bespeaks of organisations. conventional educational programs in the practice of HRD append a way of assisting practitioners to compass the skills they now deal for effective practice.The design of much(prenominal)(prenominal) programs, however, is problematic disposed(p) the emergent and cross-disciplinary personality of the eld. This root surfaces some of the challenges associated with program design for the information of HRD practitioners, drawing from discussions in, and pro li ng query from, the HRD literary get goings. The nal section of the paper proposes some(prenominal) key areas that pick up to be addressed in preparatory programs for HRD practitioners.Some De nitions In foc apply on the phylogenesis challenges for such an occupational group, this paper is using ? Human Resource Developer? as an umbrella destination to encompass those practitioners whose prepare at bottom organisations is concerned mainly with up mental process done raising discip notation in individualists, groups or the organisation more than than than collectively. Whilst the diversity of practice in the eld is ac completelISSN 0158-037X print 1470-126X online/01/010037-17 O DOI 10. 1080/01580370120043231 2001 Taylor & Francis Ltd 38 R. Johnston dged, for the purposes of this paper those be givening in organisations with positional labels including enterprise trainer, discipline of cer, trainer and give riseer, learnedness strategist or advisor, mental pr ocess waxer, organisational developer and round education of cer are being collapsed into one occupational category. All of these labels take over been or are being utilise in organisations and in the publications to designate those whose indigenous bet is to improve surgical operation in organisational settings through fostering encyclopaedism (Mulder, 1992).The paper similarly uses the term Human Resource Development as an umbrella term to describe the fetch of such practitioners. It on that pointfore considers HRD practice as encompassing orthodox forms of cooking as well up as former(a) forms of employee or organisational discipline. Challenge 1 what is driving HRD practice? A major challenge confronting designers of programs for HRD practitioners is determining what is driving HRD in organisational settings.Certainly those writing just round the eld in some(prenominal) journals and HRD methodology texts go forth a number of competing spots some this cap itulum (Kuchinke, 1998 Barrie & Pace, 1997 Garavan et al. , 1995 Chalofsky, 1992 Watkins, 1989). A brief summary of some of the differing perspectives follows. HRD is mainly Ab come out of the closet Meeting Business Needs Through learnedness in that respect is a body of literature that argues that HRD is rst and foremost about improving performance through discipline-based strategies for the purpose of achieving art goals.This perspective, underpinned by forgiving capital and strategicalalal human resource theories, claims that the real value of HRD practice should be deliberate in foothold of its contribution to organisations as opposed to the value of learning for the individual (Kuchinke, 1998 Stace & Dunphy, 1996 Torroco & Swanson, 1995). It tensenesses that HRD activity should leave mensural value-added outcomes that are aligned to the mission, strategic goals and fear plan processes of organisations.It excessively argues that HRD practice is proactive and therefore about anticipating imminent business ask and shaping the organisations succeeding(a) through contingency plans that rms can deploy when situations warrant (Kuchinke, 1998 Martocchio & Baldwin, 1997 Garavan et al. , 1995). such(prenominal) a future orientation means that HRD practice should be about improving the ? exibility and adaptability of operationforces and business units and therefore should land in close association with separate organisational or business carcasss, and sometimes customers or suppliers, to serve well acquire business goals.A business-oriented perspective of HRD would project that HRD preparation programs should foreground learning activities that join on learners minds of the give out and direction of their organisations and the pressures these organisations face. such(prenominal) programs should build learners capacities to diagnose immediate and future organisational skill level look ats. They should similarly erect learners with an understanding of a range of strategies for achieving and communi- Challenges in HRD Practitioner Preparation 39 cating measur equal to(p) and transparent outcomes in terms of performance values that are valued by organisations.HRD is About Fostering separate Employee Growth and Development Through Learning A competing perspective of HRD is that it is primarily about helping individuals on the job(p) in organisations learn and grow. Although there is turn in the midst of those arguing that development practice should be driven by an instrumental powerbased approach and those arguing for a more holistic human-centered approach to employee development, advocates from both camps posit that the major concern of HRD is that of helping individuals and groups learn through black-tie provision or some other plotted strategy (Barrie & Pace, 1997Watkins, 1989). As a consequence, the organisation pass on bene t, but this is scrapary, as the main concern is always for the people e ngaged in the learning. This perspective of HRD argues that learning is the mechanism for empowering individuals by equipping them with skills and acquaintance desired for scientific and occupational potpourri. If practice is driven by a humanistic orientation, it often involves learners cooking their own development.It too attempts to elicit the electrical condenser of individuals for critical re? ectivity by recognising that individual identity and growth are integral to learning. On the other hand, when skill formation and learning is driven by a more instrumental approach and based on pains- or enterprise-based capacity standards, orthodox homework classes and on-the-job coaching and assessment of competencies are ballpark.This emphasis on the aim for individual employee growth through learning is preserve by recent organisational literature, which argues that individuals should take greater responsibility for their own ongoing development and calling watchfulnes s. such(prenominal) literature arouses that individuals can no languish-lasting expect their employers to take sole responsibility for ensuring employee career development tending(p) that contemporary employment is often get a line based and therefore little permanent.In this scenario, individuals need to make opportunities for their own growth and development and hence should examine individual learning and growth opportunities from HRD activities (Arnold, 1997 Wilson & Barnacoat, 1995 Handy, 1995). This perspective of HRD would suggest preparation programs for HRD practitioners should provide learners with headphone understandings of the principles of adult development and learning and with capacities to design development approaches which enhance individual learning and development.HRD is About Fostering the Development of a Learning Organisation This third perspective is found in both guidance and HRD literature, and is ofttimes associated with high-performance organisa tions that are utilising vernal working(a) practices including the application of more sophisticated business applied science, more luckicipative approaches to decision making, team-working structures and more ? exible use of labour. It is likewise a perspective of HRD practice often found in organisations undergoing signi sky structural or ethnic assortment (Marquard & 40 R. JohnstonSofo, 1999 Barrie & Pace, 1997 Field & Ford, 1996 Watkins & Marsick, 1992 Jones & Hendry, 1992). Such organisations ofttimes identify themselves as learning organisations or at to the lowest degree indicate that they are aspiring to become learning organisations. De nitions and descriptions of learning organisations vary. most de nitions, however, suggest that such organisations have characteristics which include the capacities to collect, store and transfer fellowship which enable them to continuously transform themselves and so attain high levels of performance and competitive positioning.T hese de nitions and descriptions also suggest that learning organisations empower employees to learn as they work both individually and collectively, to utilise engineering science for more cultivatable outcomes, to strive for continuous improvement, and to critically question processes and work practices and their underpinning assumptions (Denton, 1998 Garavan, 1997 Coopey, 1996 Field & Ford, 1996). Thus, this perspective of HRD advocates that a prime dimension of HRD practice should be the promotion of a form of collective learning that allows organisations to transform themselves.The focus of the learning organisation approach therefore is on the work team, the business unit and the wider organisation rather than the individual, although individual skill development is still tell apartd as important. In organisations adopting this perspective the HRD practitioner often works as an interior consultant. This role requires the HRD practitioner to advise teams and business units on problems, assist with the prudence of veer and foster continuous improvement processes and attitudes.There is less emphasis in such organisations on chunk training in technical and adjective skills and more on development of behavioural skills and learning though collaborative experiences which occur in the piece of work and through work roles. Team mental synthesis and facilitating variegate through action learning are common practices for such HRD practitioners (Argyris, 1994). This perspective of HRD also ac companionships that the learning that determines organisational performance is often mum or attained informally. Hence, HRD practice involves stimulating call into question about current work processes and creating opportunities for critical re? ction on both explicit and tacit familiarity use as part of work. It may also involve working with managers or supervisors to establish more open piece of work climates which can provide for participative decision-making opportunities for employees and which recognise the contribution that difference and diversity can make to workplace outcomes. programs seeking to develop practitioners with this perspective of HRD should provide learners with enhanced capacities to understand the directions and the kinetics of their organisations, including the work of the various subsystems inside their organisations.Such programs should develop in learners an understanding of how to network with and in? uence those working in organisational puzzle outs other than HRD in point to collaboratively achieve the sought-after collective learning. Such learners need to acquire skills in promoting individual and organisational change. This may require growing skills in using conventional upskilling approaches but may also involve HRD practitioners acquiring skills in the design and writ of execution of less orthodox development strategies to assist individuals and groups Challenges in HRD Practitioner Preparation 41 ollectively to develop saucily frameworks for understanding their roles, responsibilities and relationships in organisations. HRD? a contestable area of work distinctiveness A more radical perspective, from time to time found in both popular guidance journals and some more academic critiques of training and human resources, questions the contribution and position of HRD as a separate organisational function or as a specialist role. Arguments used to advance this position are that, in the downsized, team-based learning organisations of today, separate HR/HRD specialists are unnecessary for organisations that all anagers and supervisors should be the trainers and developers and stewards of their staff that all employees have a responsibility for their own career development and that developments in technology such as ? just in time? on-line services, computer-based training packages, ? exible and self-paced learning packages, and computerised HR management systems allow lear ning to occur bothwhere, any time without a trainer or HRD specialist needing to be give up (Ulrich et al. , 1997 Goldrick, 1996).Stewart (1996) further illustrates this line of argument, positing that since human resource (HR) practice does not increase competitive business advantage, all HR services, including training, can either be abolished, outsourced or absorbed into the normal roles of supervisors, team leaders and managers. The future for HRD specialist practitioners according to this approach would be as specialist consultants or bundle trainers working for a number of client organisations. The emerging body of literature about learning in excellent enterprises could also be seen as challenging the need for specialist HRD positions in organisations. some(prenominal) recent studies examining learning in underage business have shown that there is considerable learning through development-related experiences occurring in small enterprises, despite the fact that most lack an HRD function or HRD specialists (Harris & Simons, 1999 Field, 1997 Rowden, 1995 Hendry et al. , 1995). In umpteen small enterprises development occurs because an employee need to know or be able to do something in order to be useful in the organisation. This pervasive form of human resource development is usually provided by a more experienced co-worker or manager or supervisor and informed by a virtual(a) common-sense logic.The describe success of such an approach to HRD for small enterprises could be seen as raising questions about the value of specialist HRD skills preparation. Some post-modernist writers also critically question the value and the traditional contribution of the specialist HRD practitioner in the development of individuals or organisations. Such critics seek to interrogate galore(postnominal) of the hold dear truths trainers hold. For example, they question the idea that competence can be cl archean de ned and that the determine of the workers match th ose of the organisation.Furthermore, they deny that there is a single outmatch practice and are highly critical of training and development activities which inculcate form to organisational rather than individual needs (Garrick & Solomon, 1997 Garrick, 1994). While there is some coincide between the competing perspectives presented above, 42 R. Johnston each perspective could be seen as suggesting a need for a assorted emphasis or focus for help in designing programs which prepare HRD practitioners. Alternatively, the existence of these perspectives could be seen as suggesting the need for inclusion of each perspective inside such programs.Challenge 2 the changing nature of workplaces Further challenges also exist for designers of any programs preparing individuals for new vocational roles when the sites of such vocational practice are subject to signi camber change. Such change can render what has precedent(prenominal)ly been seen as necessary working knowledge less valua ble, and can create an imperative for new knowledge and practice. As a result, it could be argued that any practitioner preparation single achieves relevance if it addresses at least elements of the changing context of work and occupations.The literature addressing the changing nature of organisations contains a number of interrelated reports that have signi cant implications for the role of HRD practitioners and their practice. The following(a) section brie? y considers three frequently occurring news reports. Organisational modification Responses for Achieving More Competitive Positioning Recent organisational literature has examined the structural and cultural changes made by organisations in response to the more competitive worldwide economy. Some common responses to this environment have included the move to leaner, more ? xible, less hierarchical, more team-based organisational structures which allow more rapid response to the changing economic environment the establish ment of more dynamic, competitive and participative organisational cultures requiring individuals to be more accountable for their own performance, and the use of more powerful information, management and production technologies (Handy, 1995 Senge, 1990 Kanter, 1989). These responses have contributed to the use of more ? exible employment practices within industries and enterprises that are reducing the opportunities for some individuals to secure permanent employment.Flexibility in employment practice has also produced new conceptualisations of both careers and work itself and has required new understandings of the processes of career planning and development (Arnold, 1997 Handy, 1995 Hilltrop, 1995 Bridges et al. , 1994 Lawler, 1994 Ostermann, 1988). While there is vigorous debate about the nature and effects of such change there is little questioning that these changes have occurred (Casey, 1999 Tessaring, 1998 Rifkin, 1995 Handy, 1995). In such a changing environment the HRD p ractitioner faces a number of new challenges.Firstly, they may nd themselves responsible for upskilling employees for new roles which require new mindsets about the way work is to be carried out on the part of employees. The HRD practitioner may therefore be abstruse in motivating learners to accept new organisational roles and structures and imposed organisational cultures at a time when long-established reward and recognition systems are eroding. Secondly, as time frames for achieving coveted organisational outcomes are Challenges in HRD Practitioner Preparation 43 educed, HRD practitioners can no longer rely on using HRD strategies that are reliant on well-established calendars of development events which can be implemented over a long time period. Thirdly, HRD practitioners themselves in this context of change and accountability are increasingly being required to demonstrate their own contribution to the achievement of measurable and valued outcomes for the organisation. Thes e are only three changes that place new demands on the HRD practitioners and require them to have new forms of working knowledge.Formal HRD practitioner preparation essential therefore be designed to equip these practitioners with capacity to both telephone change in the global economic environment and assist with the shaping of their organisations response. In so doing, HRD practitioners will no longer be able to rely on traditional models for answers and time frames for action. This presents the challenge of how HRD learners can be prepared so that they are more responsive to the changing context of the environment of their organisation and in Rhinesmith s (1995, p. 7) words, help them to ? reframe boundaries? and ? develop new mindsets? about practice. Core Organisational Competencies for the Information Age Discussions about the spunk competencies which organisations need for survival in the post-industrial economy are also prominent in contemporary organisational literature. These discussions frequently emphasise the need for organisations to develop knowledge times and knowledge management competencies.They also advocate that employees from all levels and from most occupational elds need to see themselves as knowledge workers who require enhanced formal and abstract skill sets (Casey, 1999 Ulrich, 1998 Denton, 1988 Rifkin, 1995). Additionally, managerial and learning competencies are seen as essential core organisational competencies for achieving competitive positioning in the contemporary business environment (Stuller, 1998 Ulrich et al. , 1997 Dunphy et al. , 1997 misfortuneall, 1996 Prahalad & Hamel, 1990 Leonard-Barton, 1992). Dunphy et al. 1997), argue that an organisation s capacity to create and embed learning around the strategic confinements is critical for its long-term performance. To achieve this, they claim organisations (and their employees) require engagement competencies (communication, motivating and enthusing, commitment formati on, integration, path nding and enaction), business technology competencies (the business-speci c technology through which the organisation creates and delivers value) and performance management competencies (1997, p. 232). Dunphy et al. see the task of embedding such competence as resting with managers.It could also be argued that this task is also a responsibility of the HRD practitioner. This therefore requires the HRD practitioner to have an understanding of these core competencies, the skills to develop the needful competencies in others as well as the skills to ensure that the competencies are practised by employees. The requirement for new skill sets or competencies once again places pressures on HRD practitioners. One pressure is that they must learn to rede ne their own roles 44 R. Johnston as part of the knowledge contemporaries/knowledge management process of an organisation.Some evidence of the value of such reframing of the HRD practitioner role to include knowledge management is already emerging in the US literature (Stuller, 1998). Secondly, HRD practitioners need to assist their trainees to see the value of acquiring and using more abstract skills and knowledge. Thirdly, the call for new forms of managerial competence suggests the need for HRD practitioners to increasingly understand the broad range of attributes and skills comprising victorious organisational management and once again to design strategies which both develop such skills amongst managers and drive their use.Workplaces and Work Roles as Sites and Sources of Signi cant Learning A further theme in the organisational change literature of immediate relevance to designers of preparatory HRD practitioner programs is that which advocates the importance of learning for competitive workplaces. No longer is organisationally useful learning being seen as solely that which is delivered in workplace training rooms. It is increasingly being seen as occurring when employees share knowledge gained through collaborative work experiences, or from discussions with competitors, or gained from ? n line? sources or other electronic data repositories (Marquard & Sofo, 1999 Davernport, De Long & Beers, 1998 Denton, 1998 Rowden, 1995). In some organisations the introduction of performance management systems has further reinforced the notion that the development process takes place within the workplace and the work role. As a result, in many organisations the HRD practitioner is a consultant or coach working directly with individual employees and managers to develop the performance necessary to achieve the strategic goals of the organisation (Marquard & Sofo, 1999).An increase recognition of a need for more effective communication, problem solving, team building and con? ict resolution skills on the part of employees has also been part of the discussion associated with the importance of workplace learning. sassyer work behaviours being sought are often based on making more exp licit employees tacit knowledge about how the organisation operates and a range of interpersonal attributes. smith and Hayton (1999) suggest that development activities to build these forms of work behaviour are in particular evident within organisations that have ntroduced quality improvement processes and new forms of work organisation. Each of the above themes has implications for the work of the HRD practitioner and in turn for the design of preparation programs for such practitioners. These themes suggest the scaling back of traditional bureaucratic organisational structures and the outlet of new forms of employment in which employees play differing roles and complete different work. The themes imply the need to equip employees with a broader range of skills and changed mindsets about the nature of work.Similarly, HRD practitioners require understanding of the newer skills required in organisations and the differing delivery formats which may be more appropriate for the new forms of work. Challenges in HRD Practitioner Preparation Challenge 3 diverse ndings in pro ling studies 45 The previous sections have drawn on those ideas from the HRD, organisation and management literature that have implications for the design of preparation programs for HRD practitioners.This section considers the challenges that arise from the somewhat diverse ndings from recent studies examining the role of HRD practitioners. One of the largest pro ling studies of this eld of practice was accomplished by the American Society for preparedness and Development (ASTD) in 1996. From a survey of the membership of this hunting lodge this strike identi ed the range of master copy competencies that practitioners saw as necessary to meet the demands of a changing society and their changing workplaces.The critical roles that respondents in this study nominated included providing performance support services (which required competencies in all interventions not just training) usin g technology for delivery support interventions(which required competencies in technology planning and implementation) managing human performance systems (requiring an ability to apply business system skills) promoting continuous learning at individual, team and organisational levels, and managing change processes (requiring capacities with technologies that facilitate change and change management consulting).The report argued that the critical competencies for practice were an awareness of diligence or corporations including an understanding of vision, strategy, organisational culture and how to link HRD practice with organisational goals more than ever before management skills including leadership skills understanding the customer focus and project management skills interpersonal skills and technological literacy (American Society for Training and Development, 1996). While this American study would suggest a extend role for HRD practitioners, some other studies are less de nite. For example, Nijhoff and de Rijk (1997) report ndings from a proportional study of HRD practitioners from four European countries. From this study the questioners tentatively describe that training and development and organisational change activities remained the most important parts of the HRD practitioner role. Similarly some Australian studies of the early 1990s also suggested a narrower role than that found in the United States. For example, Moy (1991) analysed position vacant advertisements for HRD practitioners (using a similarly broad de nition of this term as used in this paper).Her data revealed that the traditional responsibilities associated with an orthodox training role such as instructing, facilitating, program design and administration move to rate highly as key responsibilities in advertised positions. She did report, however, a trend towards advisory and diagnostic service and showed that organisational change and development, analysing needs and conducting sk ills audits, advising on individual career development and strategic HRD planning were amongst the most frequently identi ed responsibilities in newly created positions.Another Australian study of the early 1990s, using professional association members from this eld, also found a dominant training orientation for those in this role. This study suggested that there was no indication of a rupture towards a broadened 46 R. Johnston HRD role or to role specialisation (e. g. needs analyst, learning evaluator) or to any role transformation as had been predicted in some of the literature of the late 1980s (Dunstan, 1993). Later studies, however, have provided some evidence of change in line with the ASTD ndings.In 1997 Anderson and Johnston examined HRD roles and practices, the challenges practitioners faced and the skills and understanding these practitioners perceived they would need for future practice. The sample for this study was very small and may have been atypical in that all p articipants were completing formal studies in HRD. Nonetheless, the study comprised practitioners with a spread of experience (6 months and 20 1 age of professional experience with a median of 5. 5 years of experience) and from a wide range of industry sectors.Common HRD Practices Findings from this study revealed that the HRD activities were carried out in organisations by both HRD staff from a centralised HRD function and by line staff. HRD activities undertaken centrally included program development, staff induction, career development and management and change management. HRD work carried out by line staff and supervisors comprised mainly individual training and development and performance assessment. Respondents also reported that many others in the more general HR (Human Resources) function had development responsibilities.Other positions with titles such as Capabilities Manager, Performance Manager, Quality Assurance Manager, and Learning operate Manager were further identi ed as having HRD responsibilities. The most common HRD activities conducted in respondents organisations included classroom-based group training, assessment of performance or competence, assisting with the implementation of organisational change, program design, HRD budgeting, program evaluation, one-to-one training or coaching.Other HRD activities undertaken in at least 40% of respondents organisations included monitoring organisational change, career planning, facilitating team development, process improvement/quality initiatives, and internal performance improvement consultancy. Survey respondents themselves were most frequently responsible for group training, program evaluation, one-to-one training, and assisting with the implementation of change. Payroll administration, yield interpretation, recruitment, counselling, HRD management, training resource development, and training record systems maintenance were other work tasks nominated by respondents.These ndings could be see n as re? ecting both the broadening in scope of HRD activities and a blurring of occupation role boundaries(especially with generalist HR staff and managers) within organisations. These ndings also re? ect ndings reported by Moy and, to some extent, those of Dunstan of an ongoing reliance on orthodox developmental strategies for many practitioners. Challenges in HRD Practitioner Preparation Perceptions of Recent and Anticipated qualifyings 47 This study also gathered data on practitioners perceptions of recent role change and judge challenges.Several themes emerged. The most common perception of role change was the increase demand for a closer linkage between HRD initiatives and the core business of the organisation. Several respondents indicated that they were now required to devote more energy to maturation the performance of business units, to place a greater focus on workplace issues, and to be more accountable for achieving outcomes that related to organisational goals. Th ese practitioners stated that they unavoidable to be more aware of business goals, more strategic in their practice, and to take on broader roles in the new ? exible? workplace. A second theme to emerge from respondents perceptions of change was concerned with the HRD strategies being used within organisations. Several respondents reported that there was more outsourcing of HRD provision by their organisations, that learning centres, severalise learning plans, open learning strategies were being increasingly used and that there was more involvement by managers and line supervisors in HRD activities than there had been in the past.Other responses indicated changes related to the focus on industry or enterprise skill standards and assessment of such competency, to meeting mandatory statutory requirements (e. g. EEO, Occupational wellness and Safety requirements), to multi-skilling and to the facilitation of organisational change. A small number of respondents also suggested that th ey were being required to work longer hours with reduced budgets.Anticipated challenges nominated by respondents included preparing the organisation for technological change and the need to adapt to changing learning and development technologies (e. g. computer-based, interactive learning technologies, multimedia and open learning). Several respondents also indicated that they anticipated that their role would require them to address the issue of development of part-time and conduct employees. Performance-based training, managing organisational change, and the move to team-based organisational structures were other challenges that respondents anticipated facing.Several expected that they would have to justify the maintenance of the HRD department and its existing budget, and predicted the possibility of further outsourcing of the HRD function. Skills and Understandings Needed for HRD Practice The nal question in the study asked respondents to nominate the skills and understandings they felt were most needed to operate effectively as an HRD practitioner. Communication skills were the most frequently identi ed, with responses suggesting a need for both general communication skills and more speci c skills in areas such as negotiation and group management.A second cluster of responses related to the traditional skills of training, with respondents listing competencies connected with instruction, facilitation, program design and training needs analysis. A third cluster of competencies was concerned with organisational awareness. Skills here included planning skills, knowledge of corporate culture, manage- 48 R. Johnston ment of projects, time and resources as well as general administration, budgeting and market placeing skills. Other respondents indicated the need for well-developed skills in analysis, investigation, problem solving and consultancy.In the following year, Kostos (1998) reported a further set of pro ling ndings from a focus group of learning and development professionals with varying levels of responsibility from within both large corporations and small business. This study revealed that there was a de nite shift in the skill requirements of people currently involved in the eld with the greatest change being ? in the area of trainer to consultant? (p. 19). Her study also found that the learning and development function equired professionals to be more aware of business issues in order to make the linkages in the delivery of learning. Skills in consulting, high-level communication, analysis, resource and project management, using behavioural transformation approaches, organisational development and managing change, use of new technologies, and managing cultural diversity were also required. Participants also nominated the need for a re ned capacity for knowledge management. To summarise brie? y, the pro ling studies reveal some evidence of change in the HRD practitioner role.While the traditional practices of training and d evelopment still lay down major tasks of this role, there is evidence of the need for HRD practitioners to have an enhanced capacity to operate strategically. As such, HRD practitioners could be seen as requiring an increased understanding of the organisational drivers and the capacitance to work with the dynamics that operate within speci c organisational settings. These studies also play up the ubiquity of change in organisations and the need for practitioners to be able to work within and develop others within a change context.These studies could be seen as presenting the designer of HRD preparation programs with the challenge of providing learners with both the traditional skills associated with training and development using a classroom-based delivery mode as well as the skills to use alternative strategies both to improve performance in line with business goals and to assist both organisations and individuals to manage change. Some Implications for Preparation of HRD Practi tioners The preceding sections of this paper have identi ed some of the challenges that confront those who are developing programs to enhance the skills of HRD practitioners.These challenges have been identi ed from an analysis of recent literature. There is also some convergence in this literature about the skills and understanding that are needed for contemporary HRD practice which can be used as a guide for determining the content of preparation programs in HRD. This nal section highlights some of the areas that could feature in such programs. HRD Preparation Programs Should Foreground the consideration of Practice There is ample evidence, both from the theoretical discussions of the eld and the pro ling studies cited, of the importance of organisational awareness for HRD practitioners.Such evidence suggests that this aspect should be foregrounded in Challenges in HRD Practitioner Preparation 49 HRD development programs in order to assist learners to work strategically and ove rtly align their practice with organisational directions and the achievement of organisational goals. Even though it can be anticipated that many learners undertaking such formal programs will have had some experience within organisations, developing skills in organisational analysis, strategic thinking and planning, translating business objectives into action, nancial awareness and planning would seem valuable.Similarly, there would seem to be a need for students to be able to develop the communicative capacity to establish the alignment between HRD initiatives and organisational goals at both interpersonal and organisational levels to avoid being marginalised at best or replaced at worst. HRD Preparation Programs Should Address Traditional Training Areas Such as Presentation, Program Design, Needs Analysis and Training Evaluation Pro ling studies from Australia and Europe clearly show that the more traditional areas of training/HRD practice are still common HRD activities.It can not be assumed, however, that the technologies associated with best practice orthodox training are well known or well practised, as many practitioners come into HRD practice as a second career resulting from the expertise they have displayed in a technical or functional role. To better equip practitioners who have entered the eld in this way, program designers need to ensure that their learners develop capacities to implement the learning technologies and strategies (including design as well as delivery and evaluation strategies) that are used within organisational settings.These should include, but also go beyond, the traditional classroom-based models of instruction. Skills in developing employees at their work site are being increasingly required as the workplace becomes the source of working knowledge. Similarly, as some of the studies discussed above show, skills in designing electronically provided learning experiences become pivotal as learning becomes a process that is call ed up when needed rather than an activity tended to(p) when directed. Even with the shift in some HRD work from the specialist HRD function to workplace-based supervisor or onsultant/coach (Kostos, 1998) there is still a need within organisations for expertise in accurate training and development needs analysis and in the design of effective development and support experiences that are appropriate for the learner and the task. HRD Preparation Programs Should Foster Capacity of HRD Practitioners to Become Managers of Change A theme pervading most current organisational literature is the need to recognise that organisational change will be a continuing and accelerating feature of post-industrial society.Respondents in the pro ling studies also indicated that they anticipated playing a role in implementing organisational change as well as confronting change both in terms of the learning and organisational technologies they would be using. Such ndings would therefore suggest there is a strong need for HRD students to gain a sound understanding of the diverse dimensions of change that 50 R. Johnston impact on their role, and to develop the capacity to assist with the design and implementation of individual and organisational change.HRD Preparation Programs, peculiarly for the Australian Context, Should Provide Some Focus on Competency-based Training, Workplace estimate and Performance Assessment The notion of competency-based training and the process of developing industry competency standards were features of industry training and skill formation policies in the early 1990s in Australia. This approach to training subsequently became a major feature of much vocational training conducted in educational institutions within Australia. The level of adoption of this approach within enterprises is not so clear.For example, a large study of enterprise training in Australia in 1996 by Smith and Hayton (Smith & Hayton, 1999) revealed that most of the enterprises in thei r sample were not using competency standards to guide their training activities, and that the incidence of competency-based training in enterprises was very low. They did comment, however, that there were notable exceptions in their sample. The study by Anderson and Johnston (1997) cited earlier, however, suggests that some elements of competency-based approaches were being enacted in organisations.A number of respondents in this study indicated that assessment of competencies/capabilities/performance was a common HRD activity in their organisations. More extensive evidence indicating support by Australian enterprises for competency approaches is reported in a study of 350 companies absolute in 1999. Seventy per cent of the respondents in this study indicated that they support a competencybased training approach for their employees, even though not all companies supported the use of formally developed national industry competency standards.Some companies reported developing standar ds for their own organisational contexts (Allan Consulting Group, 1999). Despite some of the contradictions in these ndings, it could be argued that HRD preparation programs should provide learners with understandings of issues and processes associated with competency-based training and assessment, as elements of the approach are being used to varying degrees within organisations in Australia.Similarly, calls for the use of performance management approaches and the need for performance management and improvement competencies in HRD practitioners (American Society for Training and Development, 1996 Dunphy et al. , 1997) could be seen as reinforcing the argument for enhancing skills in developing performance standards and assessing competence in performance in HRD learners. HRD Preparation Programs Should Equip Practitioners to Prepare Employees for New Forms of public life Planning The literature that discusses the changing world of organisations and work predicts the disappearance of career structures as we know them.It has also suggested that the individual employees will need to develop an expanding portfolio of skills for ongoing employment in the contemporary workforce (Handy, 1995 Lawler, 1994). Challenges in HRD Practitioner Preparation 51 This suggests, therefore, that HRD preparation should equip learners with the capacities to understand and utilise the processes of multi-skilling employees as well as facilitating individual career interventions. Such skill on the part of the HRD practitioner will allow for more ? exible use f organisational workforces as well as enhancing the employability of individuals both within and outside organisations. charge planning emerged fairly strongly from some of the pro ling studies as an important competence for HRD practice. This evidence suggests that some of the tools of the practice associated with this area need to be addressed in the preparation of HRD practitioners. Such preparation may also be salient for the practitioners themselves, as their own careers in HRD will also be subject to the same forces of change as many of the employees in the organisations in which they work.HRD Programs Should Recognise that Those in this Field of Practice are not Located Solely Within a Specially Designated HRD portion Employee development is occurring at various levels in organisations and hence students participating in preparation programs may have a range of organisational responsibilities and work backgrounds. This could also suggest that in the preparation of HRD practitioners there is a need to provide education in other HR disciplines in order to provide participants with a broad framework for practice.Similarly, there is a need to help participants develop the capacity to work in close association with those in other positions within organisations, as employee and organisational development initiatives are frequently shared. shoemakers last This paper has attempted to foreground some of the challenges that confront designers of preparation programs for human resource developers. These challenges arise from the contested perspectives of HRD, the complexity of the sites of HRD practice, and the divergence in ndings in recent pro ling studies of the eld.There is also a degree of convergence in the writing and enquiry about the eld which would seem to suggest that the role scope and hence required working knowledge and skill of HRD practitioners is broadening. This convergence provides a basis for determining the substantive content needed for formal preparation programs for practitioners from this eld. There remains, however, a need for further research into the role of HRD practitioners in contemporary organisations and the practice skills and working knowledge HRD practitioners require.Such research will contribute to the development of relevant preparatory educational programs and may also lead to increased recognition of the role that HRD practitioners play in the achievement of effective organisational practice. Address for correspondence Robyn Johnston, Faculty of Education, University of Technology, Sydney, PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia. E-mail Robyn. emailprotected edu. au 52 R. Johnston References ALLAN CONSULTING GROUP. (1999). Training to compete The training needs of industry. Report to the Australian Industry Group. NSW, Australian Industry Group.AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR tuition AND DEVELOPMENT (ASTD) (1996). ASTD report Competencies for HRD practitioners. Training and Development in Australia, 23(3), 25 30. ANDERSON , G. & JOHNSTON , R. (1997). Human resource development Developing developers in a changing landscape. account presented at the 5th International Conference on Post despotic Education and Training, Grif th University, Qld, Australia. ARGYRIS, C. (1994). The future of workplace learning and performance. Training and Development diary, 48(5), 36 47. ARNOLD, J. (1997). Managing careers into the 21st century .capital of the United Kingdom Paul Chapman. BARRIE, J. & PACE, W. (1997). Competence, ef ciency and organizational learning. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 8(4), 335 342. BOXALL, P. F. (1996). The strategic HRM debate and the resource based view of the rm. Human Resources prudence Journal, 6(3), 59 75. BRIDGES, W. et al. (1994). The future of workplace learning and performance. Training and Development Journal, 48(5), 36 47. CASEY, K. (1999). The changing contexts of work. In D. BOUD & J. GARRICK (Eds), Understanding learning at work. London Routledge. CHALOFSKY, N. (1992).A integrative de nition for the human resource development profession. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 3(2), one hundred seventy-five 182. COOPEY, J. (1996). Crucial gaps in the learning organisation Power, politics and ideology. In K. STARKEY (Ed. ), How organisations learn. London International Thomson Business Press. DAVERNPORT, T. H. , DE LONG, D. W. & BEERS, M. C. (1998). Successful knowledg e management projects. Sloan instruction Review, Winter, 43 54. DENTON, J. (1998). Organisational learning and effectiveness. London Routledge. DUNPHY, D. , TURNER, D. & CRAWFORD, M. (1997).Organizational learning as the creation of corporate competences. Journal of Management Development, 16(4), 232 242. DUNSTAN, B. (1993). Views for the training and development workplace A report of practitioner survey ndings. Sydney AITD. FIELD, L. (1997). Training and learning in small business Issues for research (pp. 1 21). Sydney Research concenter for Vocational Education and Training, University of Technology Sydney. FIELD, L. & FORD, B. (1996). Managing the learning organisation. Melbourne Longman. GARAVAN, T. (1997). The learning organisation A review and evaluation.The Learning Organization, 4(1), 18 29. GARAVAN, T. N. , COSTINE, P. & HERATY, N. (1995). The emergence of strategic human resource development. Journal of European Industrial Training, 19(10), 4 10. GARRICK, J. (1994). Pos tmodern doubts and ? truths? about training. Studies in Continuing Education, 16(2), 127 142. GARRICK, J. & SOLOMON, N. (1997). Technologies of compliance in training. Studies in Continuing Education, 19(1), 19. GOLDRICK, P. (1996). Don t shoot the messenger. Australian Training Review, 21, 8 11. HAMEL, G. & PRAHALAD, C. K. (1994). Competing for the future.Boston Harvard Business School. HANDY, C. (1995). Beyond certainty The changing worlds of organisations. London Hutchinson. HARRIS, R. & SIMONS, M. (1999). Rethinking the role of workplace trainer expression a learning culture. Paper presented at the seventh International Conference on Post Compulsory Education and Training, Grif th University, Queensland, Australia. HENDRY, C. , ARTHUR, M. & JONES, A. (1995). Strategy through people Adaptation and learning in the small medium enterprise. London Routledge. HILLTROP, J. (1995). The changing psychological contract The human resource challenge of the 1990s.European Management Journa l, 13(3), 286 294. JONES, A. & HENDRY, C. (1992). The learning organization Review of the literature and practice. proscription Warwick Business School, University of Warwick. Challenges in HRD Practitioner Preparation 53 KANTER, R. (1989). When giants learn to dance. New York Simon & Schuster. KOSTOS, C. (1998). Issues facing learning and development professionals. Training and Development in Australia, 25(5), 19 20. KUCHINKE, K. P. (1998). Moving beyond the dualism of performance versus learning A response to Barrie and Pace.Human Resource Development Quarterly, 9(4), 377 384. LAWLER, E. E. (1994). From job-based to competency-based organizations. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 15, 3 15. LEONARD-BARTON, D. (1992). Core capabilities and core rigidities A paradox in managing new product development. Strategic Management Journal, 13, 111 125. MARQUARD, M. & SOFO, F. (1999). Building the learning organisation Best practice from around the world. In F. SOFO (Ed. ), Human resource development perspectives, roles and practice choices (pp. 321 336). NSW Business and Professional Publishing. MARTOCCHIO, J. J. BALDWIN, T. T. (1997). The evolution of strategic organizational training. Research in Personnel and Human Resource Management, 15, 1 46. MOY, J. (1991). Human resource development practitioner roles and competencies An analysis of recent research. Asia Paci c HRM, 29(4), 7 23. MULDER, T. (1992). Towards a comprehensive research framework for training and development in business and industry. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 1(2), 104 114. NIJHOF, W. & DE RIJK, R. (1997). Roles, competences and outputs of HRD practitioners A comparative study in four European countries.Journal of European Industrial Training, 21(6/7), 247 255. OSTERMANN, P. (1988). fight futures, reorganization, dislocation, public policy. London Oxford University Press. PRAHALAD, C. K. & HAMEL, G. (1990). The core competence of the organization. Havard Business Review, 68, 79 91. RHINESMITH, S. (1995). clean the door to a global mindset. Training and Development, May, 49(5), 35 43. RIFKIN, J. (1995). The end of work? The decline of the global labour force and the dawn of the post market era. New York G. P. Putman s Sons. ROWDEN , R. (1995).The role of human resource development in successful small to mid-sized manufacturing businesses. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 6(4), 355 373. SENGE, P. (1990). The fth discipline The art and practice of the learning organisation. New York Random House. SMITH, A. & HAYTON, G. (1999). Enterprise training in Australia. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 10(2), 251 272. STACE, D. & DUNPHY, D. (1996). Beyond the boundaries Leading and recreating the successful enterprise. Sydney McGraw Hill. STEWART, T. A. (1996, January). Taking on the last bureaucracy.Fortune Magazine. STULLER, J. (1998). Chief of corporate smarts. Training, 35(4), 28 37. TESSARING, M. (1998). Training for a changing society A report on current vocational education and training research in Europe. Thessaloniki CEDEFOP European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training. TORROCO, R. & SWANSON , R. (1995). The strategic roles of human resource development. Human Resource Planning, 18(4), 10 21. ULRICH, D. (1998). Intellectual capital 5 competence 3 commitment. Sloan Management Review, Winter, 15 26. ULRICH, D. , LOSEY, M. & LAKE, G. Eds) (1997). Tomorrow s HR management. New York John Wiley. WATKINS, K. (1989). pentad metaphors Alternative theories for human resource development. In D. GRADOUS (Ed. ), Systems theory applied to human resource development (pp. 167 184). Alexandria, VA American Society for Training and Development. WATKINS, K. & MARSICK, V. (1992). Building the learning organisation A new role for human resource developers. Studies in Continuing Education, 14(2), 115 129. WILSON, J. & BARNACOAT, M. (1995). The self-managing strategy. Sydney Business and Professional Publishing.